Relationship between Alcohol and Depression

Relationship between Alcohol and Depression The Complex Association between Alcohol Consumption and Depression Constantin Vintilescu Abstract Symptoms of depression are typically among those who abuse alcohol. Previous research has shown a positive correlation between alcohol consumption and depression exists; however, the exact nature of the association is complex. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between the amount of alcohol consumption and severity of depression as described by the Alameda County Health and Ways of Living Study (ACHWLS) dataset. The raw data was aggregated, transformed, and used to calculate new variables. Correlation and curve estimation analysis was performed on the calculated variables. An overall positive correlation was confirmed, and previous research was upheld by demonstrating that abstainers and heavy drinkers have greater symptoms of depression than lite to moderate drinkers. However, a complex S-shaped pattern, with low symptoms of depression among very heavy drinkers, was determined to be the best fitting regression model. This finding has previously been undescribed , and may be due to the limitations of self-reporting by very heavy consumers of alcohol and the severely depressed. Further study is suggested, with screening performed by trained professionals, to confirm this finding. The Complex Association between Alcohol Consumption and Depression Alcohol consumption and depression are frequently co-occurring conditions. A cyclical pattern of escalating comorbidity has been described in people with both disorders, but previous studies have shown that the association is not a simple linear correlation. The aim of this paper is to conduct a secondary data analysis of the 1994 ACHWLS dataset to describe the relationship between alcohol abuse and depression. Research Questions Is there a positive correlation between alcohol consumption and depressive symptoms? Does a linear, quadratic, or cubic regression model explain the most variability between alcohol consumption and severity of depressive symptoms? Background Alcohol abuse is common and is often associated with depression. In a 2012 survey, conducted by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, of Americans over the age of twelve: 17.0 million reported heavy drinking, and 14.9 million were diagnosed with alcohol dependence (SAMHSA, 2013). According to the SAMHSA (2014), an estimated 43.7 million American adults experienced some form of mental illness; and an estimated 9.6 million adults had a serious mental illness, including major depression. Of these, 8.4 million people had co-occurring mental illness and a substance use disorder (SAMHSA, 2014). Of people with alcohol problems, 80% show symptoms of depression (Mclntosh Ritson, 2001), and 25% of those with depression also have an alcohol problem (Chick, 2002). An escalating cycle of comorbidity exists between alcohol abuse and depression: people with a mental health disorder have a higher likelihood of alcohol abuse when compared to people without mental illness (SAMHSA, 2014); people with concurrent major depression and a substance abuse disorder have more severe symptoms of depression than those without a substance abuse disorder (Ostacher, 2007); and greater severity of depression is associated with more drinking (Palfai et al., 2007). Thus, depression may augment alcohol use, which in turn, may increase symptoms of depression – creating an accumulative cycle of abuse and depression. Numerous studies confirm the positive association between alcohol consumption and depression (Alati et al., 2005; Dixit Crum, 2000; France et al., 2004; Hartka et al., 1991; Rodgers et al., 2000). However, the nature of the relationship is complex, as both the abstinence from and heavy consumption of alcohol are both associated with an increased risk of depression (Alati, et al., 2005; Blow, Serras, Barry, 2007; Rodgers et al., 2000). It is clear that the relationship is non-linear (Rodgers et al., 2000b), but there is uncertainty over its exact nature. Whether the association curve is J-shaped or U-shaped depends on the method of measurement (Graham, Massak, Demers, Rehm, 2007). Data Source The 1994 ACHWLS is part of a longitudinal funded by the National Institutes of Health, which began surveying a random sample of households in Alameda County, California in 1965. Alameda County was chosen because the diversity of residents closely resembled the population of the United States, and thus allowed for greater generalizability to the American public. The 1994 ACHWLS attempted to follow-up on all the respondents interviewed in 1965 and 1974 with a self-administered questionnaire regarding living patterns, health, and socio-demographics. No one question, on the ACHWLS, completely reflected the intensity of alcohol consumption, or the severity of depressive symptoms, exhibited by the respondent, so a strategy to represent a cumulative score for these variables was developed. Key questions regarding alcohol use and symptoms of depression were identified and aggregated in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively. Several responses to questions were reversed so that a higher numerical score reflected an increased severity of symptoms. Responses were subsequently transformed to a zero-based scale. Table 3 and Table 4 show the recoded values. Table 3 and Table 4 were each summated to calculate the new variables DRINKING and DEPRESSION respectively. Of the 2,729 respondents in the ACHWLS, only cases with complete responses to all items on both Table 2 and Table 3 were considered (N = 1,248). Included participants ranged in age from 46 to 95 years old (M = 63.1, SD = 9.79). The median income was $ 40,000-$44,999; the majority were male (56%); most had finished high school (90%), and had at least some higher education (66%). Race/ ethnic demographics are summarized in Table 1. Methods The distribution of DRINKING is slightly skewed to the right (skewness = 1.70). The histogram, mean score, and SD are shown in Figure 1. Possible values range from zero to 24. Similarly, DEPRESSION is also slightly skewed to the right (skewness = 1.48). The distribution is shown in Figure 2. Possible values range from zero to 18. The mean DEPRESSION score corresponding to each DRINKING value is shown in Figure 3. Being the sum of several ordinal values, it is important to clarify that DRINKING and DEPRESSION both represent continuous scales of intensity. Although their possible ranges are limited on this instrument, their values could theoretically be measured on an infinite positive scale of rational units. As such, parametric testing is appropriate; even though the data is not a perfectly normal distribution, parametric procedures are still valid because of the very large sample size (Ghasemi Zahedias, 2012). Pearson’s correlation was performed to test the overall relationship between quantity of alcohol consumption and of severity depression. Since convincing evidence has previously demonstrated a positive association exists between the variables in question, directional analysis was used to determine the p-value. This method increases the experiment’s statistical ability to discover an effect without changing the level of significance. To describe the nature of the association, non-linear regression was performed in SPSS. The curve was estimated using several models, including linear, quadratic, and cubic to determine the best fit. Results A directional Pearson Correlation was performed between DRINKING and DEPRESSION. The effect size was determined to be small, but significant, r (1249) = .091, p = .001. Curve fit analysis shows that linear (F 1, 1246 = 6.134, p = .013, R2 = .005), quadratic (F 2, 1245 = 7.789, p 2 = .011), and cubic (F 3, 1244 = 7.545, p 2 = .018) regression models were all significant. Figure 4 shows a comparison of all three models and the actual data. The cubic regression model was able to explain the highest degree of variability, accounting for .016 (adj. R2) of the variance in DEPRESSION. Figure 5 shows the cubic model along with the formula governing the curve. Discussion Although the Pearson’s correlation was a significant positive value, the effect size was small. This is an expected outcome because the nature of the association is non-linear. Negative correlations among abstainers and very lite drinkers served to negate much of the positive correlations among moderate and heavy drinkers. Segmented correlations or stepwise regression may be of value to determine the exact effect on depression for each of the following groups: abstainers, very lite drinkers, lite drinkers, moderate drinkers, heavy drinkers, and very heavy drinkers. Cubic regression was the best fitting curve, but only a small degree of variability was explained by this model. This may be due to possible limitations of the DEPRESSION variable. A more sensitive instrument to gauge depression severity may yield a higher R2. Also, due to the nature of very heavy drinking and severe symptoms of depression, persons with these afflictions may be under-represented in the ACHWLS survey. This possibility may be responsible for the low R-value. Screening performed by trained professionals may increase the correlation and variability explained by this model. Interestingly, the curve showed a complex S-shape, with very high alcohol consumption being associated with lower symptoms of depression. This observation may also be related to the sensitivity of the DEPRESSION variable, or it may be related to a reporting problem among very heavy drinkers. Although a maximum score of 24 is allowed by the screening instrument for DRINKING, the maximum score reported was only 18. This may suggest that very heavy drinkers were not accurately represented in the study data source. Very heavy drinkers and very depressed persons may not have responded to the survey or not have responded to all the items in Table 1 and Table 2 due to the nature of their alcohol problem or depression. A more focused study with screening performed by trained professionals may yield more accurate results than a generalized survey relying on self-reporting. Conclusion Correlations are weak; however, the over-all effect of alcohol consumption on depression is positive. The exact nature of the association is complex, with both heavy drinkers and abstainers showing greater symptoms of depression. The best fitting curve, for this dataset, is cubic with an S-shaped pattern. However, limitations among responders with very heavy drinking and severe symptoms of depression may be influencing the curvature. A focused study with screening performed by trained professionals is recommended. References Alati, R., Lawlor, D. A., Najman, J. M., Williams, G. M., Bor, W., OCallaghan, M. (2005). Is there really a J-shaped curve in the association between alcohol consumption and symptoms of depression and anxiety? Findings from the Mater-University Study of Pregnancy and its outcomes. Addiction, 100(5), 643-651. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01063.x Blow, F. C., Serras, A. M., Barry, K. L. (2007). Late-life depression and alcoholism. Current Psychiatry Reports, 9(1), 14-19. Chick, J. (2002). Clinical depression in heavy drinkers of alcohol. Hospital Pharmacist, 9(1), 229-233. Dixit, A. R., Crum, R. M. (2000). Prospective study of depression and the risk of heavy alcohol use in women. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(5), 751-758. France, C., Lee, C. Powers, J. (2004), Correlates of depressive symptoms in a representative sample of young Australian women. Australian Psychologist, 39:228–237. doi:10.1080/00050060412331295054 Ghasemi, A. Zahedias, S. (2012). Normality tests for statistical analysis: A guide for non-statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10(2), 486-489. DOI:10.5812/ijem.3505 Graham, K., Massak, A., Demers, A., Rehm, J. (2007). Does the association between alcohol consumption and depression depend on how they are measured? Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(1), 78-88. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00274.x Hartka, E., Johnstone, B., Leino, E. V., Motoyoshi, M., Temple, M. T., Fillmore, K. M. (1991). A meta-analysis of depressive symptomatology and alcohol consumption over time. British Journal of Addiction, 86(10), 1283-1298. Mclntosh, C., Ritson, B. (2001). Treating depression complicated by substance misuse. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 7(1): 357-6. Ostacher, M. J. (2007). Comorbid alcohol and substance abuse dependence in depression: impact on the outcome of antidepressant treatment. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America., 30(1), 69-76. doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2006.12.009 Palfai, T. P., Cheng, D. M., Samet, J. H., Kraemer, K. L., Roberts, M. S., Saitz, R. (2007). Depressive symptoms and subsequent alcohol use and problems: a prospective study of medical inpatients with unhealthy alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(5), 673-680. Rodgers, B., Korten, A. E., Jorm, A. F., Christensen, H., Henderson, S., Jacomb, P. A. (2000). Risk factors for depression and anxiety in abstainers, moderate drinkers and heavy drinkers. Addiction, 95(12), 1833-1845. doi: 10.1080/09652140020011135 Rodgers, B., Korten, A. E., Jorm, A. F., Jacomb, P. A., Christensen, H., Henderson, A. S. (2000b). Non-linear relationships in associations of depression and anxiety with alcohol use. Psychological Medicine, 30(2), 421-432. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2013, September). Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings, NSDUH Series H-46, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 13-4795. Rockville, MD: Author. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014, October 9). Mental and Substance Use Disorders. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved February 15, 2015, from http://www.samhsa.gov/disorders Tables Table 1 ACHWLS Questions Related to Drinking Note: Responses appear exactly as they are reported in the 1994 ACHWLS. Table 2 ACHWLS Questions Related to Depression Note: Responses appear exactly as they are reported in the 1994 ACHWLS. Table 3 ACHWLS Questions Related to Drinking Recoded Note: Responses to items with IDs ending in â€Å"R† are recoded to reflect a higher severity with higher numerical value. All other responses appear exactly as they are reported in the 1994 ACHWLS. Table 4 ACHWLS Questions Related to Depression Recoded Note: Responses to items with IDs ending in â€Å"R† are recoded to reflect a higher severity with higher numerical value. All other responses appear exactly as they are reported in the 1994 ACHWLS. Table 5 Race / Ethnicity Demographics Note: Self-reported ethnicity / racial demographic data summarized from respondents of the 1994 ACHWLS who submitted complete responses to all question items listed on both Table 1 and Table 2. Figures Figure 1. Distribution of data for DRINKING variable. DRINKING is summation of responses listed in Table 3. Possible values range from 0 to 24. Figure 2. Distribution of data for DEPRESSION variable. DEPRESSION is summation of responses listed in Table 4. Possible values range from 0 to 18. Figure 3. Mean of all DEPRESSION scores corresponding to each DRINKING value. Figure 4. Best fit curve estimation for variables DRINKING and DEPRESSION. Mean data collected from the ACHWLS is shown in red. Figure 5. Cubic regression curve is given by the formula above. Mean data collected from the ACHWLS is shown in red.

Cafeteria Food Essay

Some people think that school cafeterias should be required to provide low-fat and/or vegetarian lunch options to accommodate the government’s nutritional guidelines, but all students do not eat the same. In my essay about cafeteria food, I will explain what students want in their food. I will also share the likes and dislikes in the food and what we can do to improve it. Cold pizza, undercooked hamburgers and brown lettuce sounds nasty. Many students from different states and districts have to deal with that every day at their schools. The food from the cafeterias used to be good, with a sweet flavor, but in the last few years the food had taken a different flavor, a flavor that cannot be tolerated by the students. The students need a better quality in their food, don’t they? It’s time for a change, a change to food, so students can be satisfied while their eating, a change to food that can be really worth it. As a matter of fact, we students pay money to the district every year and this is what we get? It’s time for a change. Everybody knows that eating healthy was from the past. However, now students and not necessarily just students eat fast food like McDonalds or Taco Bell. Now everybody does, which can be a good and a bad thing. The changes of the food’s taste has made many students to not eat at school, or even made students to bring lunch, and this as a matter of fact causes the school to lose money. In all actuality is the loss of money causing the school to give students poorly made food? If the schools would serve students food from places like Pizza Hut and Subway I can guarantee that most or all students would eat at the cafeterias and it would benefit to both school and students. These types of foods would be so great to have in schools, but unfortunately the district and the governments have taken action and unfairly, they have set down laws that prohibit these foods in the schools. They have settled these laws because they want us as students to eat healthy, but if they want to keep us healthy, why are they giving us food with a bad and nasty taste? Also, with these laws they keep students like me away from eating too much â€Å"junk† food because they can cause obesity. But do they keep on giving us food that is not even worth the amount of money our parents give to the government every year? If they were the ones who eat all of the nasty food given by the cafeteria they would of get tired of eating cold pizza and uncooked hamburgers with brown lettuce just like we the students do. In conclusion, we all understand what the overnment and the school system is trying to do with this healthy eating program. They want to promote healthy eating habits in an effort to prevent obesity. Although nutrition is important, students feel that there is a better way to have healthy food without ruining the taste. Therefore, in an effort to keep students healthy and leave with their stomachs satisfied we should all come together to realize that we are the ones that have to make it through the school day with the food.

The Development of Human Resource Management in China

Introduction HRM is short for Human Resource Management and identified as a new managerial science. HRM is originally invented by western academicians. Its history is not long and it has become more and more popular in the recent years. In Australia, HRM is replacing the old IR system as positive managerial action replaces â€Å"ground rules†. (Alexander, Lewer Gahan, 2008) In China, the business society has been significantly affected by â€Å"guanxi†. A mount of â€Å"ground rules† were created gradually in China’s business society. It means that after China’s reform and open policy had operated for 30 years, China still has not seriously developed a scientific managerial method for human resource. Thanks to the more and more frequently communication†¦show more content†¦However, HRM is not just appraisal. Now business people know that HR also creates value by increasing intelligence in the firm and HR professionals would translate their work into fi nancial performance. (Ulrich, 1997) Consequently, ten years earlier, HRM is more likely to be a department for people who got demotion to go. Business people’s understanding of HRM was not comprehensive enough. Therefore its theory and practice were not operated in a right way. It is fortunate today that this science has got more and more attention. People begin to realise its impact on the financial performance. It is a totally new area of management practice. Time for HRM dynasty has come. Q2 At what stage of development is the HR profession in China? Since 1978, China’s reform and open policy has taken. China’s marketing economy has only experienced 30 years. Unlike the developing history of HRM in the west, China would experience one certain stage in a very short period and shift to the next while in western country it might take several decades. Because of western countries’ successful experience for HRM development, the managerial science communication about business has given China a great experience. Therefore, it is likely for China to develop in HRM very quickly. More than ten years ago, it may refer to Stage 5, The Organisation Man. Today, HRM in China is developing in a western way. Due to it is developing too fast in China. Therefore, it might have shifted into the nextShow MoreRelatedHuman Resource Development : China1082 Words   |  5 PagesThe emergence of People’s Republic of China in the last two decades has been remarkable. This paper will analyse and review the procedures which led t o human resource development (HRD) in China. People’s Republic of China is the world’s most populous nation with an abundance of manpower availability. The human resources in China were under-utilized because of many reasons. Since China got independence in 1949 till late 1970’s, they followed a highly centralized economic planning system, unlike theRead MoreOrganizational Culture And Human Resource Management1048 Words   |  5 Pages Research by Newman Nollen (1996) indicated that organization performance is better in the companies which there is congruency between national culture and human resources practices. If the human resources management practices are not in line with the basic tenets shared by employees, it will lead to dissatisfaction, lack of commitment and discomfort among the employees (Early, 1994). Introduction Culture affects and governs all facets of life by influencing values, attitudes and behavior ofRead MoreStrategic Employee Training and Development in Chinese Luxury Hotels1119 Words   |  5 PagesSTRATEGIC EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE LUXURY HOTELS Organizations’ success is relying on the critical value of human resources. 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Project Management, Nait Lrt Project - 1855 Words

Abstract The purpose of this research paper is to critically analyse the issues of delay in the NAIT LRT project. This project was initiated on September 6, 2015, which was supposed to be in 2014. The key objective of this research paper is to identify steps and activities that must be managed to avoid delays, development problems due to unexpected risks and even monitoring the project. This study will provide a brief analysis of the issues incurred in the failure of NAIT LRT project. This study undertakes the information available on the journal articles, newspaper articles, online material, City of Edmonton website and other news channel websites to explore the history and current position of the project. Keywords: Project†¦show more content†¦It is formally known as the Metro Line. (Objective) The 3.3km division line was planned to run from Churchill Square to NAIT linking MacEwan University, the Royal Alexandra Hospital, the new arena and Kingsway Mall to the main LRT system. It was expected to add 13,200-weekday riders to the city’s LRT network. The objective of this project is to get the line open, subject to it being safe, as described by city manager Simon Farbrother in an interview in Edmonton Journal. The construction and designing of this extended Meto Line were predicted to cost (baseline cost) of $755 million. This cost estimation includes the purchasing property and new LRVs. Sponsors of the NAIT LRT project were the Government of Alberta, the Government of Canada and City of Edmonton. The baseline schedule and milestones of this project are mentioned in the appendix of this paper. Thales Computer –Based Train Control system are responsible for operating the NAIT LRT. While construction on the $665 million (expected cost was $755 million) project was completed on schedule, there have been issues incorporating the new Communication-Based Train Control system with the current LRT signalling system. Mario Peloquin, Vice President, Tha les Rail Signalling Solutions Inc. says he appreciates everyone’s patience as crews work to complete the work. The current signalling system is one of the reasons for the delay of this project. The communication lines include the

Othello Essay - 1312 Words

The definition of a tragic hero is that an individual who has a mixture of admirable qualities and a tragic flaw which proves fatal. This suggests Othello is a tragic hero, though qualities such as nobility in thoughts or actions do not consistently portray Othello throughout the play. Despite his brave reputation as a soldier and characteristics of trusting and caring initially with Desdemona, his weaknesses in both his own character and his vulnerability to Iago ¡Ã‚ ¦ s lies, and the decision of killing Desdemona at last do not make Othello sufficiently noble in thought or action to attain the status of a tragic hero. Imperfections such as pride and jealousy are signs of an insecure personality. The Othello in the beginning of the play is†¦show more content†¦nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Vulnerability to other people ¡Ã‚ ¦ s lies highlight insecurities and flaws in Othello ¡Ã‚ ¦ s character creating ignoble personalities. 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Iago kneels Witness, you ever-burning lights above, You elements that clip us round above, Witness thatRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Othello And Othello Essay1282 Words   |  6 PagesOthello speaks to Iago in Act Three of the play saying, â€Å"certain, men should be what they seem† (3.3.131). This excerpt foreshadow events in which Othello will begin to question the actions and morality of Cassio and Desdemona, all orchestrated by Iago’s scheming nature. This is a very important concept to showcase because Othello devoutly loves Desdemona and trusts Cassio until conniving language from Iago causes him to think otherwise. Drawing on Shakespeare’s source story by Cinthio and otherRead MoreMusical Characterization For Othello s Othello997 Words   |  4 Pages Musical Characterization for Othello In Verdi’s Othello, the music is used by Verdi to characterize each character in the opera. It is the music who describes the audience the personality traits of each character. Moreover, music accompanies every scene in the opera. In many cases, we can know what is happening or what the character is feeling through the music the orchestra is playing. This is an innovative way to characterize the characters in an opera used by Verdi that do not fit into theRead MoreOthello By William Shakespeare s Othello1209 Words   |  5 PagesOthello Down Shakespeare s Othello comprises of the subjects betrayal, affection and dishonesty. At the focal point of this play is the lamentable ruin of Othello because of his so-called friend Iago. In this paper I will be examining the explanations behind and against Othello being in charge of his defeat through taking a gander at critical interpretations of his character and activities. Othello was profoundly in charge to his own destruction as Iago demonstrating to him to be gullible andRead MoreOthello By William Shakespeare s Othello Essay1230 Words   |  5 Pages Previously, in Act 3.4, Othello begins to suspect Desdemona’s loyalty, as he continuously asks Desdemona for the handkerchief, yet she keeps on changing the topic. In Act 4.1, Iago continues to convince Othello of Desdemona’s faithfulness. In Act 3.4, Othello defended Desdemona when Iago accused her; but in Act 4.1, their position is switched. Othello becomes more aware of what Iago is saying and the anger that he has towards Iago has significantly reduced, while he begins to doubt Desdemona.Read More Free Othello Essay: The Disintegration of Othello590 Words   |  3 PagesDisintegration of Othello nbsp; nbsp;nbsp; Shakespeares Othello is a play with unique characters. One such character is the one for which Shakespeare names his play. In the play, Othello disintegrates from a confident leader to a homicidal murderer. Linguistic changes throughout the play attest to this theory. nbsp; In the opening scenes, Shakespeare portrays Othello as a noble character. When Brabantio seeks vengeance (for stealing his daughter) on Othello, Othello expresses his actions

Teaching Human Virtues Free Essays

Human beings grow and mature through their experiences in life. With the help of parents, friends and other people we get to know, human beings are able to learn many different lessons and knowledge. Human virtues are normally inculcated in our minds at a very young age, thought by no less than our immediate family members. We will write a custom essay sample on Teaching Human Virtues or any similar topic only for you Order Now Through time, we may or may not abandon the virtues that we believe in depending on our personal perceptions and our social environment. Nonetheless, human virtues can be taught not only because such virtues are ‘social constructs’ but also because human beings have the tendency to teach things by ostensive definition which can easily train people into believing many different things. John Locke proposed in Book II of An Essay Concerning Human Understanding that the state of human beings at birth can be compared to a tabula rasa or a blank tablet—the mind is basically empty of knowledge (Wood, p. 652). Conversely, we acquire knowledge through experience, specifically through sensory perception, as well as through our interactions with other people. One way of learning is through ostensive definition or defining what a concrete object or an abstract idea is by ‘pointing’ to the object or the manifestation of the idea. A child learns what a ‘chair’ is when somebody points an object chair to a child and tells the child that the object is a chair. Similarly, a person learns what the human virtue of kindness is when somebody points to a certain manifestation of the virtue and tells the person to observe the behavior. In essence, human virtues are abstract concepts that can be best understood in terms of their physical manifestations. For instance, the virtue of charity can be learned by observing a person who willingly donates some of his properties to charitable institutions such as orphanages. The virtue of bravery can be learned when a child sees a group of firemen trying to put out a fire from inside a burning building. There are also other ways to teach and learn different human virtues apart from ostensive definition. One of these ways is through formal education where students are taught what human virtues are with the help of books and other written articles. To a certain degree, learning institutions provide the theoretical framework for these human virtues. Thus, students learn the theoretical aspects of human virtues in the classroom while they learn the practical aspects of these virtues in real-life circumstances outside the school. From the state of tabula rasa, human beings progress into filling those empty slates with learning taught from experience, including human virtues. On the other hand, Aristotle maintains that human virtues can only be acquired by enacting the principle of the â€Å"mean†. According to Aristotle, virtues are the â€Å"mean† or middle values between ‘excess’ and ‘deficiency’ (Yu, p. 341). For example, courage is the mean of rashness—excessive courage—and cowardice or the deficiency of courage. How can an individual attain the human virtues or how can an individual live within the confines of the â€Å"mean†? To that question, Aristotle tells us that we should habituate our actions. Since every human being should strive to attain the good life or what he calls Eudaimonia, they should likewise see to it that they constantly practice the virtues so that they can be habituated. Following Aristotle’s theory, human virtues can be taught because virtues can be—as they should be—habituated. By performing virtuous actions to others and by habituating them, others are, in effect, taught about the value of these virtues. Those who are unaware of the idea that helping an old lady cross the street, for example, is an act of kindness can learn about the virtue by experiencing the act themselves. Children who are yet to fill their â€Å"blank tablets† with knowledge can be taught about human virtues through constant exposure to the action and by requesting them to do the same thing in their lives. In his book The Construction of Social Reality, John Searle argues that institutional facts are facts that have been socially constructed. That is, human beings and the society in which they live in are responsible for creating these types of facts. In that sense, human virtue can be considered as an institutional fact primarily because human beings have long proposed varying theories concerning the nature of virtues. Without human beings, one can hardly say that virtues will still exist. The fact that â€Å"human virtues† are called as such suggests that, without humanity, these virtues would not have come into existence. Following Searle’s argument, it does sound reasonable enough to say that human virtues can be taught. Like factual lessons taught to young people in classrooms and in the family, human virtues are also taught in almost the same manner. Some can even go to the point where they create their own virtue systems. The fact that there are varying conceptions of human virtues also points us to the idea that human virtues have been formulated across different cultures in different times. While one act may be considered absurd by one group such as cannibalism, another group may consider the act as virtuous. Among these varieties of groups, every respective virtue is passed on from one generation to another, making it survive through time or reducing it into inexistence or into another form. In highly traditional regions, virtues are taught either through word of mouth or through practice. For example, the virtue of â€Å"bayanihan† in the Philippines—the virtue where members of the community form a team to help a resident transfer his house to another location, typically through manual labor—is taught from one generation to the next through stories told to the younger members of the neighborhood and through the observation of the practice as it happens (Gibson and Zellmer-Bruhn, p. 283). In more modern countries, human virtues are taught through a number of ‘far-reaching’ ways; one of these ways is through mass media. For example, America is host to numerous television networks broadcasting hundreds of TV shows on a daily basis. Cartoons with a broad adult audience composition such as â€Å"Simpsons† and â€Å"King of the Hill† teach human virtues typically related to family matters through the stories of each episode and their characters. Children’s cartoons and puppet shows—for instance, Baby Looney Tunes and Sesame Street, respectively—are more likely to impart human virtues that can be easily understood and appreciated by children because they comprise the larger part of the audience share (Cross, p. 39). Those who think that human virtue cannot be taught may believe that human beings are incapable of teaching virtue in their pure form without alteration or bias. In effect, they might argue that what we consider as the virtues per se that we teach others are actually parodies of a seemingly endless string of parodies of parodies, ad infinitum. The response to that criticism is this: alterations only arise in specific contexts; virtues remain as they are in their general form. For example, a father may teach his children that it is only virtuous to avenge the death of their murdered grandfather when they become adults later in life. The father may have been given that impression about vengeance from the older generation of the family circle who also learned the â€Å"virtue† from those that preceded them, and so forth. And yet, the more general notion that causing harm to others is not virtuous remains. The more general notion that kindness and forgiveness are human virtues that should be practiced still remains intact. Others may also argue that human virtues cannot be taught because human beings are governed by their basic instinct for self-preservation. They primarily seek their personal interests and may or may not eventually promote the interests of others. Thus, they keep the virtues that can promote their personal welfare to themselves instead of teaching them to others out of fear of conflicting interests. The response to this argument rests on the very nature of human virtues; they are called â€Å"human virtues† because they presuppose that human beings naturally interact and share with others. Without sincere interaction and sharing, virtues can only be regarded as personal philosophies or personal guiding principles and not as what we know of them to be. They are called â€Å"human virtues† precisely because these virtues transcend individualism and selfishness. Otherwise, they would not be virtues in the first place. While it may be more or less likely true that human beings have a selfish gene, so to speak, it does not make them pathologically selfish beings. Neither does it totally prevent them from teaching human virtues to others, especially young children and those who need a lesson or two about them. It is through our daily experiences that we are able to learn human virtues as we observe them and, more importantly, as they are taught to us by those who know the virtues well enough. Although some people may decide not to teach others about human virtues, it does not consequently suggest that human beings are indeed incapable of teaching human virtues to others. The fact that each person can decide whether or not to teach human virtues to others also suggests that they can teach these virtues regardless of their personal decisions. A virtue taught to another individual may be in the form of an observed behavior, an ostensive definition or a theoretical example. Either way, human virtues can be taught. Not even the most selfish person in the world can deny the fact that human virtues have been passed on from one generation to the next. How to cite Teaching Human Virtues, Papers

Business Ethics Ethical Decision Making and Cases

Question: Discuss about the Business Ethics : Ethical Decision Making and Cases. Answer: Introduction: A professional is a person who has gained training and knowledge on a particular field of education. This knowledge and training helps the professional to perform a particular profession, a specified role within the particular profession. Professional is said to be a person who belongs to a community of a particular profession who performs his duty in order to earn his living from that. The professionals who engaged in particular profession owes a certain level of code of conduct, ethics and morality towards his profession. There are Professional Associations that maintain the professional standards of ethics and standards. The key element which comprises a profession is a following a strict code of conduct. All the professionals and agencies who need to follow a strict code of conduct must comply themselves to honesty, integrity, personal values and competence (Kauchak Eggen, 2016). Thus, an accountant has knowledge, skill and training in particular field of knowledge adheres to a strict code of conduct whereas a hair-dresser does not have professional training on their particular field and does not adhere to a strict code of conduct which is the key element as to professionalism (Levin Nolan, 2013). Professionals being member of a particular profession, who owes a certain level of obligations, code of conduct as to their profession. This criterion is important for the professionals to follow because they are given training and knowledge on the particular profession and they are to act ethically as being a part of that particular business. The professionals owe a sense of conduct towards the particular business. The non-professionals are not bound by a level of standard of conduct because they are not given formal training and knowledge on their particular profession. Doctors, Lawyers, teachers and others engaged in a particular profession are bound by both a professional code of conduct and also contracts containing standards of contract. Some of the obligations of a professional are (Pershing, 2016): Code of conduct- rules which forms the basis of social norms, the rules and duties that a person or business is supposed to abide by. It encompasses moral values, ethics, and honesty. Statutory obligations- a person engaged in a particular business or an organization is bound by certain statutory obligation. Bound by professional standards- level of diligence, skill, care practiced by a professional towards his particular profession. Professional development- the duty of the professional is to ensure development towards the particular profession. A person who does not abide by their professional obligations are held liable to be incompetent (Mintz, 2016). Understanding of ethics is important in business to ensure the professional to judge between what is right and wrong and act accordingly for the welfare of the business. It helps a person have a sense of moral judgment. The professionals working in a particular business or organization must have a certain level of ethical value to know what is right or wrong. Every business or organization has certain sets of standard of ethics. Globalization has lead to a lot of fraudulent behavior and professional issues at workplace (Ferrell Fraedrich, 2015). Ethical behavior in carrying out a business helps the goodwill of a company. When a company deals with another company, based on morals and ethical values it gives the investors a peace of mind. When moral values of the person in a particular profession are high it makes the business run in a good way without any unethical practices. Thus, it is important to follow or run a business based on ethical values to make the business run smoothly. The business which runs on ethical values attract investors makes the share pricing of the company high that in turn increases the sales and profits in the market (Halinen Jokela, 2016). The companies running their business abroad often face many legal and ethical issues in the course of their business. The multi-national companies face legal issue due to difference in the home country laws, host country laws, regional directives and regulations, certifications and international standards. The MNCs even face ethical complexities based on the local norms and customs. Failure to abide by the ethical and legal norms can result in reputational effect. The crux of International law puts forth that MNCs are bound by multilateral and bilateral treaties and by the laws of the host countries. The MNCs often find the laws of the host countries much easier to abide by than that of the home country. Even when the companies are doing business in host countries, they are required to abide by the laws of the home countries. For example if a U.S based company do business internationally there are bound by the laws of the host countrys like the ones based on human rights, labor stand ards, health etc (Ferrell Fraedrich, 2015). Here we can apply the theory of Deontology applies. The Theory of Deontology was established by Immanuel Kant that was based on morals, science and history. According to this Theory a particular State is to act in accordance with the set of rules and principles without taking into consideration the outcome. Any person or organization is to base their conduct on morality in the way it seems right to us (Marossi, 2015). References: Ferrell, O. C., Fraedrich, J. (2015).Business ethics: Ethical decision making cases. Nelson Education. Halinen, A., Jokela, P. (2016). Exploring Ethics in Business Networks: Propositions for Future Research. InExtending the Business Network Approach(pp. 333-356). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Kauchak, D., Eggen, P. (2016).Introduction to teaching: Becoming a professional. Pearson. Levin, J., Nolan, J. F. (2013).Principles of classroom management: A professional decision-making model. Pearson Higher Ed. Marossi, A. Z. (2015). Unilateralism and Power of Revision. InEconomic Sanctions under International Law(pp. 165-177). TMC Asser Press. Mintz, S. (2016).Ethical obligations and decision-making in accounting: text and cases. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Pershing, J. A. (2016). Publishing: A Professional's Obligation.Performance Improvement,55(5), 2-3.